Brasilian kahden suurimman yliopiston, valtiollisen ja yksityisen, asianomaiset laitokset ovat asettuneet selkeästi ja näkyvästi Fieldsin teorian kannalle ”eurotiedettä” vastaan:

http://nakokulma.net/index.php?topic=10082.msg2302…

” Tahtotoiminnot pelaavat astrosyytti-gliasolujen ohjaamilla nopeilla synaptisilla psosesseilla (kuten myös mm. psyykkinen kuvanmuodostus havainnossa) eikä se näy magneettikuvissa jo siitäkään syystä, että astrosyyttien magneettikenttä on tasainen eikä vaihtuva kuten neuroneilla.

http://www.google.fi/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=%22douglas%2…

Astrocytes and human cognition[/url]: Modeling information integration and modulation of neuronal activity

Alfredo Pereira Jr a), Fabio Augusto Furlan b)

http://www.google.fi/url?q=http://jcer.com/index.p…
http://www.msmonographs.org/article.asp?issn=0973-…

a) Institute of Biosciences, State University of Sao Paulo (UNESP), Campus Rubia Jr., 18618-000, Botucatu-SP, Brazil

b) School of Medicine, University of Marília (UNIMAR), Marília-SP, Brazil ”

(Tässä on takana Brasilian Valtionyliopisto ja suurin ei-valtiollinen yliopisto, ja sanoma on, että Fieldsin mukaan edetään:

url=http://network.nature.com/groups/bpcc/forum/topics/6747?page=1

url=http://network.nature.com/groups/bpcc/forum/topics/6747?page=1

Pereira: ” I have read most of the popular text on brain function written by Nobel Laureates, prominent neuroscientist, philosophers, linguist and “science writers”. None can match “The Other Brain” as far as thoroughness of scientific facts and ease or reading. It is a real “page turner”. It is the only book on brain function that I could not put down until completed. Until you read this remarkable book about glia, “the other half of the brain”,your knowledge of brain function is far from complete.”)

” Recent research focusing on the participation of astrocytes in glutamatergic tripartite synapses has revealed mechanisms that support cognitive functions common to human and other mammalian species, such as learning, perception, conscious integration, memory formation/retrieval and the control of voluntary behavior. Astrocytes can modulate neuronal activity by means of release of glutamate, D-serine, adenosine triphosphate and other signaling molecules, contributing to sustain, reinforce or depress pre- and post-synaptic membranes. We review molecular mechanisms present in tripartite synapses and model the cognitive role of astrocytes. Single protoplasmic astrocytes operate as a ‘‘Local Calcium waves Hub’’, integrating information patterns from neuronal and glial populations. Two mechanisms, here modeled as the ‘‘domino’’ and ‘‘carousel’’ effects, contribute to the formation of intercellular calcium waves. As waves propagate through gap junctions and reach other types of astrocytes (interlaminar, polarized, fibrous and varicose projection), the active astroglial network functions as a ‘‘Master Hub’’ that integrates results of distributed processing from several brain areas and supports conscious states.

Response of this network would define the effect exerted on neuronal plasticity (membrane potentiation or depression), behavior and psychosomatic processes. Theoretical results of our modeling can contribute to the development of new experimental research programs to test cognitive functions of astrocytes.

1. Introduction

Although astrocytes compose at least one half of human brain tissue volume, until two decades ago mostly passive functions were attributed to these glial cells, such as giving structural, metabolic and functional support for neurons. However, a growing number of ‘in vitro’ and ‘in vivo’ results support the conception that unipolar cells reside in the deep layers of the cortex, near the white matter (and) extend one or two long (up to 1 mm in length) GFAP-positive processes away from the white matter’’ (Oberheim et al., and Araque, 2005; Haydon and Carmignoto, 2006; Wang et al., 2006b; Fellin et al., 2006; Genoud et al., 2006; Winship et al., 2007; Schummers et al., 2008; Halassa et al., 2009). In an evolutionary approach, Banaclocha states that ‘‘in the leech, the astrocyte–neuron ratio is 1:25; in Caenorhabditis elegans 1:6; in rats and mice 1:3. In humans, the astrocyte-to-neuron ratio is approximately 3:2. This exponential increase of astrocytes cannot be explained solely on increased glial metabolic support. Alternatively, it is plausible that increasing numbers and organization of astrocytes implicates a role for these cells in the evolution of increasingly complex brain functions’’ (Banaclocha, 2007). Evidence for this role is an increase in glia-to-neuron ratio in human dorsolateral frontal cortex.

Direct applications of these results for an understanding of human cognition and emotion are beginning to emerge in the fields of neurology and psychiatry. Astrocytes are involved in the etiology of several neurological disorders as epileptic seizures (Willoughby et al., 2003; Silchenko and Tass, 2008; Reyes and 2009; Kuchibhotla et al., 2009), abusive ethanol consumption (Gonzalez and Salido, 2009) and other drugs (Haydon et al., 2009), schizophrenia (Halassa et al., 2007a; Mitterauer, 2009), depression (McNally et al., 2008) and mood disorders (Lee et al., 2007), among other dysfunctions (Antanitus, 1998; De Keyser et al., 2008). A recent hypothesis about the origin of psychiatric disorders focus on blood–brain barrier (BBB) breakdown and brain astrocyte dysfunction leading to disturbed cognition, mood, and behavior: These events ‘‘are initiated by a focal BBB breakdown, and are associated with dysfunction of brain astrocytes, a local inflammatory response, pathological synaptic plasticity, and increased network connectivity’’ (Shalev et al.,2009).

Other kinds of glial cells – reviewed by R. Douglas Fields (2009) – have also been shown to be relevant for health and disease, as oligodendrocytes in schizophrenia and microglia in degenerative disorders.

( url=http://nakokulma.net/index.php?topic=10081.0 )

In this emerging paradigm, glial cells are envisaged as the main target for new psychiatric drugs. According to Halassa et al. (2009), ‘‘These discoveries begin to paint a new picture of brain function in which slow-signaling glia modulate fast synaptic transmission and neuronal firing to impact behavioral output. Because these cells have privileged access to synapses, they may be valuable targets for the development of novel therapies for many neurological and psychiatric conditions’’.”

(Tämä artikkeli on ilmestynyt ennen Fieldsin kirjaa. Kirjassaan Fields käsittelee myös astrosyyttien suorittamaa synapsien ohjausta: ”Thisis exactly what astrocytes do at a synapse!”

http://books.google.fi/books?id=2nmHpXPmV80C&pg=PA…)

” 11. Astrocytic network mediates voluntary behavior

… ”